The History of Coffee: From Ethiopian Legend to Global Habit

Coffee is one of the most traded drinks in the world, but its history stretches across continents and centuries. Its story involves legends, religion, trade, social life and, less happily, colonial agriculture.

Key takeaways

• Coffee plants are native to Ethiopia, and the cultivation and drinking of coffee developed in Yemen.
• Coffeehouses became important social and intellectual centres in the Middle East and later Europe.
• European powers spread coffee cultivation to colonies, often using forced labour.
• Brazil became the world's largest coffee producer in the nineteenth century.
• Today coffee supports the livelihoods of millions of farmers, many on small farms.

Origins and legend

Wild Coffea arabica grows in the highlands of Ethiopia. A popular story tells of a goatherd named Kaldi who noticed his goats becoming lively after eating red berries, but this tale appears in writing only centuries later and is regarded as legend. The earliest reliable evidence of coffee being drunk as a beverage comes from Yemen in the fifteenth century, where Sufi communities used it to stay awake during night-time devotions.

From Yemen to the Ottoman Empire

The port of Mocha in Yemen became a major point of export, and coffee spread to Mecca, Cairo and Istanbul. Public coffeehouses, known as qahveh khaneh, opened in the sixteenth century and were places to talk, play games and listen to music. Authorities sometimes viewed them with suspicion as spaces for debate, and attempts to ban coffee occurred in several places but did not last.

Coffee reaches Europe

Venetian traders brought coffee to Italy in the early seventeenth century. Coffeehouses opened in Oxford, London, Paris and Vienna, and in England they were nicknamed "penny universities" because a customer could join conversation for the price of a cup. Some businesses, such as insurance markets, grew from coffeehouse meetings.

Spreading cultivation

Yemen once guarded its coffee trade closely, but the Dutch obtained plants and began cultivation in the colonies, including Java. The French and others introduced coffee to the Caribbean and Latin America. Large-scale production in the colonies relied heavily on enslaved labour, which remains a serious part of coffee's history. Brazil's coffee industry expanded in the nineteenth century and made it the largest producer.

Roasting, brewing and modern habits

Early drinkers boiled ground coffee. Over time, new methods appeared: the Italian espresso machine in the early twentieth century, the filter drip method, instant coffee and, more recently, specialty coffee culture. Two main species dominate trade: arabica, usually prized for flavour, and robusta, which is hardier and has more caffeine.

Coffee and health

Moderate coffee consumption is considered safe for most healthy adults, but caffeine affects people differently. People who are pregnant or have health conditions should follow the advice of their healthcare provider.

Coffee today

Most of the world's coffee is grown in tropical regions by millions of smallholders. Price swings, climate change and plant diseases pose challenges, and certification schemes and direct trade models aim to improve conditions.

From cherry to cup

Coffee begins as the seed of a fruit called a cherry, which grows on trees in the tropics. After picking, the seeds must be separated from the fruit. In the washed process, the pulp is removed and the beans are fermented and rinsed, often producing a clean, bright flavour. In the natural process, whole cherries are dried in the sun before the fruit is removed, which tends to give fruitier, heavier flavours. Dried beans are milled and sorted, then roasted. Roasting transforms the green seeds, developing aromas and flavours. Light roasts keep more of the bean's origin character, while dark roasts taste smokier and more bitter.

Brewing methods compared

Different methods suit different tastes. Espresso forces hot water through finely ground coffee under pressure, making a small, concentrated drink that is the base for lattes and cappuccinos. Filter or drip brewing passes hot water through a bed of grounds, giving a clean cup. Immersion methods, such as the French press, steep grounds in water before pressing them, which produces a fuller body. The moka pot makes a strong, espresso-like brew on the hob, and cold brew steeps grounds for many hours in cold water for a smooth, less acidic drink. Grind size, water temperature and brew time all affect flavour.

Caffeine and health

For most healthy adults, moderate coffee drinking is considered safe. Health agencies, including the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Food Safety Authority, have suggested that up to about 400 milligrams of caffeine a day, roughly four cups of brewed coffee, is not generally associated with adverse effects in most adults. Pregnant people are commonly advised to keep intake lower, often around 200 milligrams a day, and anyone with health conditions or sensitivity should follow medical advice. Caffeine can disturb sleep if taken late, and too much can cause jitteriness and a fast heartbeat.

The waves of coffee culture

Coffee culture is often described in waves. The first wave made coffee widely available in supermarkets and instant forms. The second wave brought cafe chains and espresso drinks, and the third emphasised high-quality beans, single-origin coffees and careful brewing, with attention to farms and roasters. Some people speak of a fourth wave focused on science, sustainability and transparency, though the labels are loose. Whatever the name, many drinkers now take an interest in where coffee comes from and how it was grown.

Fairness and a changing climate

Coffee farmers are often smallholders who face volatile prices, and many earn little. Certification schemes such as Fairtrade aim to provide a minimum price and community funding, and direct trade models connect roasters with farms, although researchers debate how much benefit reaches farmers. Climate change is a serious threat, since arabica coffee grows best within a narrow range of temperature and rainfall, and studies suggest that suitable land will shrink in many regions. Diseases such as coffee leaf rust also threaten harvests, so breeders are developing resilient varieties.

Frequently asked questions

Where is coffee from originally?

Wild coffee plants come from the highlands of Ethiopia, and the drink was first cultivated and popularised in Yemen.

Is coffee a bean?

The "beans" are the seeds of the coffee cherry fruit.

Which country produces the most coffee?

Brazil has been the largest producer for many years.

How much caffeine is in a cup of coffee?

It varies with the bean, the brew and the cup size. An eight-ounce cup of brewed coffee typically contains around 80 to 100 milligrams, and a single shot of espresso contains roughly 60 to 70 milligrams, though the ranges are wide.

Is decaf coffee really caffeine-free?

Not entirely. Decaffeinated coffee has most of the caffeine removed, commonly about 97 percent or more, but small amounts remain. People who must avoid caffeine entirely should check with a doctor.

Does coffee stunt your growth?

No. This is a myth. There is no good evidence that coffee affects height, although too much caffeine can disturb sleep, which matters for children and teenagers.

Sources and further reading

• History of coffee (Wikipedia)
• Smithsonian Institution